Sunday 5 October 2014

Honours Project

 

How did the ‘New Romantics’ of the Twentieth-Century and the ‘Macaronis’ of the Eighteenth-Century, inadvertently highlight political ideologies by dressing in an openly androgynous style?

 
 
In addition to my written dissertation, I will be designing and constructing one costume with a mix of both eras, which reflects and supports this argument. I will be using this blog as an online sketchbook, demonstrating my research and journey to my final costume and written argument. All image and written referencing can be found at bottom of blog.
 
 
Abstract
 
This dissertation explores the androgyny found with the fashions of the New Romantics (1980s) and the Macaronis (1770s). It looks into how and why each sub-culture exhibited a high degree of androgyny within their choice of clothing. Through the aid of Judith Butler’s theory on how gender is presented within society, with regards to her study of ‘gender performativity’, this dissertation examines whether these androgynous fashions highlighted political ideologies of the time and whether or not this was their ultimate aim. With the general consensus that effeminacy of male fashion constitutes homosexuality, this study explores how society marginalises those who step outside the absolute standard of gender norms in regards to fashion, and how they are consequently punished with reference to historian Rictor Norton’s (2004) findings on homosexual scandals.  
This study focusses on a detailed analysis on both fashion groups and how similarities can be drawn between the two. With regards to the Macaronis, this dissertation explores primary sources from The Public Ledger (1772) and The Town and County (1770), both of which give evidence to the summaries stated above. In order to assess the political discourse at the time of the New Romantics, this study looks into the repression felt by many during the time of Margaret Thatcher’s reign over Britain, and how this affected the fashion motivations of the New Romantics, whether intentionally or not. This study concludes that both groups inadvertently highlighted their political ideologies at the time.

Posted by Meg Davies

Understanding the New Romantics

 
 
‘The New Romantics’ of the early 1980s, took much of their fashion inspiration from the punk movement and glam rock stars of the 1970s (Parker, 2014). New Romanticism “ultimately sought to contrast with the austerity of punk” (Stevens, 2010) and is therefore seen as a reaction to the punk movement. Arguably starting in the heart of London at ‘The Blitz Club ’, musician Steve Strange ran a private party every Tuesday for a year in Covent Gardens, where only “outrage secured entry” (Johnson, 2009).  The movement was known for its flamboyance and eccentricity demonstrated by pop icons of the time. Music was a huge influence on fashion in the 1980s and artists such as Boy George, Steve Strange, Adam Ant and David Bowie were trendsetters for these androgynous styles.



Figure 1
 




Figure 2

 

New Romantics in London 1981 photo by Derek Ridgers.
Figure 3
 
Vivienne Westwood and her store SEX 430 King's Road, London circa 1976 (pin via Sara Furman)
Figure 4
 
At The Blitz Club, the New Romantics began to steer away from the increasingly unpopular punk style of ripped jeans, t-shirts with offensive slogan printed on them, and cropped, spiked hair (Figure 11). It is arguable however that the punk ideology was continued with the New Romantic sub-culture “as it took the belief that anyone could be an individual, but [was] executed in a more posed manner” (Videodrome Discotheque, 2013).



The New Romantics displayed this individuality through frilly fops shirts, pirate hats and full make-up. (Below)

The New Romantic era depicted here by Adam and the Ants. This look had a huge inpact on fashion, incorporating both aspects of Pirate and Highway man type clothing. The continuation of men using bold make-up is evident.

Figure 5

 


 Figure 6

 

 

 

Gothic flamboyance & the dole leisure class - National European Fashion | Examiner.com

Figure 7

 
 
Boy George / photo by Laura Levine / 1982. As a reaction to the punk movement, New Romantics wore luxurious Edwardian and Victorian styles. Here, Boy George embodies a softer, more thoughtful masculinity. #subvert1980s
 Figure 8
 
 
blitz/kids/80s/new romantic - Google Search
Figure 9


Calling themselves ‘The Blitz Kids’, figure 10 and figure 11 demonstrate the parallels the New Romantics held with the androgynous clothing worn by the Macaronis. Although the New Romantics are not immediately recognisable as being directly influenced by the Macaronis fashion, both styles exaggerate the traditional way of dressing in a conservative Britain and steer away from simple designs. In addition, both use intricate embellishments, eccentric trimmings and layers of garments to display androgyny.
 
Boy George.. BAhahahahaha I don't know why but he makes me laugh! =*DMacaroni Fop
 
Top: Figure 10, “You need more than a feather to look this good” (Anon, 1770). Bottom: Figure 11 of Boy George (1980). Although satirical, figure 12 demonstrates the sheer exaggeration of usual male dress at the time. Although the musician in figure 13 is not wearing specific items of clothing that can be seen as a direct influence of the Macaroni, it is clear that both images portray androgynous clothing in its extremity. It is perhaps the connotations of each style in history therefore, that presents parallels between the two.

Vivienne Westwood's Pirate Collection, 1981

 
Arguably, another rebellion against the political discourse of the time is fashion designer, ‘Vivienne Westwood’ who was a pioneer in the New Romantic style of the 1980s (Wilcox, 2004). Not only was she known for her earlier work with the punk look, which is described by Westwood (n.d.) as her way of using fashion to “express [her] resistance and [her] rebellion”, but her collection ‘Pirate Line’  was an impetus for the New Romantic style.




 
 
Figure 12




Figure 13






Figure 14



 
Figure 15
 

 
 
In presenting an androgynous style, Westwood demonstrated the start of this 1980s ideal that fashion could become a means of merging the two genders. Androgyny was becoming significant in progressive fashion, and like the Macaronis of the 1770s, the New Romantics’ androgynous style inadvertently outlined political repression at the time.


 
 
The New Romantics - political discourse

 
There is no grounding evidence to suggest that the New Romantics and the Macaronis had any political agendas. It is clear however that their choice of dress highlighted significant political and social issues during their times. It seems likely that both groups merely used fashion as a way of demonstrating their desire for change in styles, which went against a traditionalist Britain at the time (Johnson, 2009).



 Figure 16

 

 

 

 

Boy George, Culture Club


Figure 17

 

 

 


 
 
Change in perceptions
 
Androgyny in fashion has changed dramatically over the past one hundred years. Since the beginning of World War One, women’s fashion has become gradually more masculine due to the practical demands of hard labour (Beynon, 2002). Dresses and skirts typically associated with female fashion were exchanged for trousers and shirts. The 1970s saw the beginning of unisex fashions, including jeans, bell bottoms and platform heels.
 
Plaid Stallions : Rambling and Reflections on '70s pop culture: A Wild and Crazy Couple
Figure 18
 
Unisex fashion was huge in the 70's. Maybe that's when men started cross dressing - 70's Fashion - Men and women
Figure 19

1980s fashion | Tumblr = guilty
Figure 20


 
 
Figure 21
 
 
Figure 22
 
 
 
Figure 23


 
The 'Macaronis' - 1770s
 
 
‘Macaroni’ was the name given to young men based in London from the 1750s to the early 1770s, who demonstrated effeminate characteristics through the exaggerated and outlandish clothing they wore (McDowell, 1997). The name ‘Macaroni’ derives literally from the name of the famed Italian pasta, macaroni.
 
 Caricatures at the time show that men dressing in this way were known as the ‘Macaronis’ (Figure. 2). It is however unclear whether these men referred to themselves by this title. Caricatures, by definition, exaggerate and satirise popular culture and therefore the term ‘Macaroni’ may be pejorative. To England at that time, McDowell argues that Italian food was considered “slippery” and “unreliable”, and the name therefore, was deemed anti-traditional and not positive in comparison to the “the roast beef of old England” (1997, p.45). Even in Italy, the word ‘Macaroon’ derived from the seventeenth century meaning of a “buffoon” (The Oxford Dictionary, 2015).

The ‘Town and County’ magazine describes in detail, what constitutes a Macaroni:

 

Macaronis—They make a most ridiculous figure with hats of an inch in the brim, that do not cover but lie upon the head, with about two pounds of fictitious hair, formed into what is called a club, hanging down their shoulders as white as a baker's sack. The end of the skirt of their coat reaches the first button of their breeches which are either brown-striped or white, as wide as a Dutchman's; their coat sleeves are so tight they can with much difficulty get their arms through their cuff which are about an inch deep; & their shirt sleeve without pleats, is pulled over a bit of Trolly lace. Their legs are at times covered with all the colours of the rainbow ; even flesh-coloured & green silk stockings are not excluded. Their shoes are scarce slippers, & their buckles are within an inch Of the toe. Such a figure, essenced & perfumed, with a bunch of lace sticking out under its chin, puzzles the common passenger to determine the thing's sex.  (The Town and County, 1770)

 

 Macaroni Fop
 
Figure 24
 
The Macaronis originally took their fashion inspirations from Italy and France, where these well-travelled men would return to Britain wearing these extravagant styles (McDowell, 1997).
 
 
Philip Dawe, 1773, The Macaroni, A real Character at the Late Masquerade by peacay
 
Figure 25
 
Society's antipathy towards the Macaroni can be found in the Public Ledger (Anon, 5 Aug 1772 cited in Norton, 2004): ‘A crime imported from Italy by our spindle-shanked Gentry, who make the grand Tour but to bring home the vices of our Neighbours, and return, if possible, greater Coxcombs than they were before Embarkation’. The extravagance and opulence of these countries can be seen through the Macaronies unusual choice of fabric patterns, striped waistcoats, stockings, fans, perfumes and excessively tall wigs donned with a small hat and feathers, exaggerating its proportions (Chenoune, 1993).
 
 
Macaroni, Maccaroni, and the Macaronis, via 2Romance
 
Figure 26
 

 

 

 

Figure 27

 

 

 

 
Figure 28
 
 
 
 
Figure 29
 
The name of the group had other connotations in particular with reference to the reputation of Italy at the time. Italy was known to Britain for its unnatural practises of sodomy (McDowell, 1997) Whether these acts of homosexuality were in fact true or merely speculation at the time is unclear, although this belief was enough to suggest that the Macaronis were given this foreign name as a reflection of their own reputation for sodomite behaviour, which was evident through the many convictions given to Macaronis for this act.
 
 
Figure 30
 
 
 
 Furthermore, their deconstruction of gender norms perhaps expressed their transgressive identities and consequently led to their perceived association with homosexual practices. As stated by Stratton (2000), “from this time on, in Britain at least, male display in costume or manner was associated with effeminacy and same-sex sexual activity”. The Macaronis were perhaps an impetus in changing wider social perceptions of masculinity. Although some Macaronis were known to be homosexual, this does not however allow conclusions to be drawn about the Macaronis in general.
 

Examples of Macaroni garments

 
 

Original clothing from this period is surviving today, however there is no evidence to suggest that these pieces belonged to a person known as a Macaroni. However, there are similarities in these garments to the caricatures above and from both these sources, I have been able to create a design that is both representational of a Macaroni and a New Romantic. Below are individual garments from both periods which have influenced my design, along with the images above.

 

 

 

Jackets


 

 p-lanet-e-arth: Mans Jacket 1747. Beautiful Detail.

 

Figure 31: Above

 

 

 

 Wedding suit of Gustav III, 1766
 
Figure 32: Above
 
 
 
 
 Man’s civil uniform coat. Wool tabby with silk embroidery. Italy, 1805 – 1806.
 
Figure 33: Above
 
 
 
 1775-1789 British(?) Court coat at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - From the curators' comments: "The elegance and grandeur of 1770s and 80s court dress is displayed in this court coat. The magnificent array and abundance of silver decorations used to adorn the jacket would have sparkled in flickering candlelight and indicated the status of the wearer who could afford such an expensive garment."
 
Figure 34: Above
 
 
 shirt ruffles 1770s - Google Search
 
 Figure 35: Above
 
 


 Detail from The Beaumont Family, 1777/9 by George Romney.
Figure 36: Above

If you look closely at the caricatures below, you can see the short tails of the coats, which was typical of Macaronis at the time. Proof of this can further be found in 'The Town and County' of 1770s: "The end of the skirt of their coat reaches the first button of their breeches".

The Woolwich Macaroni.

Figure 37: Above

The Smart Macaroni

Figure 38: Above

The Fat Macaroni 1774.

Figure 39: Above

 

Embroidery

 
Detail embroidery, court coat, probably France, 1775-1785. Brown silk velvet, lavishly embroidered with naturalistic flowers in coloured silk.
 
Figure 40: Above
 
wasbella102: Embroidered mid-18th-century Coromandel Coast palampore. Cotton with silk thread
Figure 41: Above
 

Stunning and sumptuous embroidery detail of Court suit Frockcoat, late 18th–early 19th century, French, silk, metallic thread, paste (c) Metropolitan Museum of Art.
 
Figure 42: Above
 
 
 Detail of exquisite embroidery and matching covered buttons to the front of an ivory silk faille waistcoat, part of a "Habit a la Francaise" consisting of Frock Coat and waistcoat, France, 1770-1790.

 Figure 43: Above



The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Suit. Really nice pattern and would look good using wool on linen, different colours.

 Figure 44: Above


Textile design, by Anna Maria Garthwaite. Spitalfields, London, 18th century
 

Figure 45: Above
 

Waistcoats

 
 India chintz waistcoat 1770-90
 
Figure 46: Above
 
 
c. 1760 Waistocat (uncut) Met Look at how stunning the embroidery is!
 
Figure 47: Above
 
 
 18th century waistcoat
 
Figure 48: Above
 
Waistcoat, probably British, ca. 1750-70. Men got to wear the most incredibley embroidered suits- wish they still did!
 
Figure 49: Above
 
 

?metallic buttons? Date: early 18th century Culture: British Medium: silk Dimensions: Length at CB: 34 3/4 in. (88.3 cm) Credit Line: Purchase, Irene Lewisohn ...
 
Figure 50: Above
 
 

 1780-1790 French Waistcoat at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - From the curators' comments: "Waistcoats of the 18th and 19th centuries served as a layer protection and ornamentation during a period in fashion when the coat was intended to be left open in the front. The color was often chosen to complement the suit and covered in imaginative embroideries, heavily woven patterns or shiny satins made to draw the eye."
 
Figure 51: Above

Men's Period Shirts

 
 
As the shirt was considered underwear, no respectable gentleman wearer would be seen in just his shirtsleeves; to do so would be altogether improper. The waistcoat (with or without sleeves) was the furthermost a gentleman would expose himself in public. From A Shirt Tale | Pegs and 'Tails
 Figure 52: Above
 
Figure 53: Above
 

 
Figure 54: Above

 
Figure 55: Above
 

Breeches

When beginning this study, I originally intended to make two separate costumes. One being Macaroni inspired, the other being New Romantic. However, I decided to make one costume which encompassed both periods in history. I therefore re-designed my costume and replaced these breeches with New Romantic 80s inspired trousers, yet with an influence of the Macaronis. Similarly, I added aspects of the New Romantics to my Macaroni jacket and wig. Below is my original research into breeches before changing my design.
 
Breeches, second half of 18th Century, European, silk, wool, linen, [written] (back of breeches) "Guidotti"
Figure 56: Above
 
Trousers (Breeches) Date: 18th century Culture: American or European Medium: wool Dimensions: [no dimensions available] Credit Line: Gift of Mr. Lee Simonson, 1939 Accession Number: C.I.39.13.240
Figure 57: Above
Trousers (Breeches) Date: late 18th century Culture: Italian Medium: silk Dimensions: Length: 28 in. (71.1 cm) Credit Line: Rogers Fund, 1926 Accession Number: 26.56.40
Figure 58: Above
 
 
 

New Romantic Trousers (1980s)

 
Vintage 80s High Waisted Pants / Pleated by babybirdvintage

Figure  59: Above


Issey Miyake @1983 Met Collection
 
Figure 60: Above
 
Trousers
 
Figure 61: Above
 

Steve Strange, Steven Harrington, Blitz Kids, New Romantics, nightclubbing, Swinging 80s, London, fashion, pop music, Visage, tributes
Figure 62: Above
 
Blitz Kids: Martin Kemp and Steve Norman
Figure 63: Above

 Blitz Kids: Blitz club couple
Figure 64: Above
The ICA exhibition Ibiza: Moments In Love creates a picture of Ibiza as it was in the eighties through a collection of club posters, books and original photographs
Figure 65: Above
Ibiza was a haven for liberal and alternative Spaniards during Franco's rule
Figure 66: Above
 

New Romantic Patterns

Due to my change in design, I will be mixing embroidery styles of the Macaronis (1770s) with patterns of the New Romantics (1980s).
 
worlds end "Pirate" knee tights designed by Vivienne Westwood & Malcolm McLaren c.1981
Figure 67: Above
boy george & leigh bowery
Figure 68: Above
Zandra Rhodes printed silk chiffon dress, 1980s
Figure 69: Above
 
This dress was designed in the 1980's, when Westwood was in her phase she calls the 'Early Years', where remnants of punk fashion could still be found in her work, before she moved on to experiment with other styles. I personally find this dress extremely beautiful, almost warrior-like. Though it is not made clear which fabric it is made out of, the pattern is in the burberry style. Fabric unknown.
Figure 70: Above

Jenny Kee 80's print
 
Figure 71: Above

 
 
References: Harvard British Standard 2010
 
ANONYMOUS, date unknown. Oxford University Press, Define: Macaroon. [Homepage of Oxford Dictionaries], [Online]. Available: http://www.oxforddictionaires.com/definition/english/macaroon [Accessed: 06/01/2015]

BEYNON, J., 2002. Masculinities and Culture [Homepage of Open University Press], [Online]. Available:http://www.stevenlaurie.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/0335199887-1.pdf [Accessed: 15/02/2015]

CHENOUNE, F., DUSINBERRE, D., 1993. History of Men’s Fashion. Paris: Flammarion, p.10.
 

JOHNSON, D., 2009. Spandau Ballet, the Blitz Kids and the Birth of the New Romantics, [Homepage of The Guardian], [Online]. Available: http://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/oct/04/spandau-ballet-new-romantics [Accessed 13/02/2015]


MCDOWELL, C., 1997. The Man of Fashion: Peacock Males and Perfect Gentlemen. New Tork: Thames & Hudson Ltd, p.45.
 

NORTON, R., 2004. The Macaroni Club: Homosexual Scandals in 1772 [Homepage of Homosexuality in Eighteenth Century England], [Online]. Available: http://www.rictornorton.co.uk/eighteen/macaroni.htm [Accessed: 05/01/2015]
 

PARKER, E., 2014, 2014-last update. Subcultures: The New Romantics of the 1980's [Homepage of Em’s Trends], [Online]. Available: http://ems-trends.co.uk/2014/02/13/subcultures-the-new-romantics-of-the-1980s/ [Accessed 12/02/2015].


STEVENS, V., 2010. Music styles and genres, [Homepage of Simply Red], [Online]. Available: http://simplyredfans.blogspot.co.uk/2010/10/simply-red-music-style-and-genres.html [Accessed 12/02/2015] 

STRATTON, J., (2000) The desirable body: cultural fetishism and the erotics of consumption. United States: Urbana University of Illinois Press 2001, p.140.

THATCHER, M., 1987. Conservative Party Conference [Homepage of YouTube], [Online Video]. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8VRRWuryb4k [Accessed: 20/01/2015]
 

VIDEODROME DISCOTHEQUE., 2013. The Blitz Kids Documentary [Homepage of Vimeo], [Online Video]. Available: http://www.vimeo.com/69436207 [Accessed: 04/12/2014]

 WESTWOOD, V., n.d. “Rebellion” and “Resistance” [Homepage of BrainyQuotes], [Online]. Available: http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/v/vivienne_westwood.html [Accessed: 26/03/2015] 

WILCOX, C., 2004. Vivienne Westwood. London: V&A.

 

Image Referencing

 

Fig 1. ANONYMOUS, 1980s. Steve Strange [Homepage of The Blitz Club], [Online]. Available: http://www.theblitzclub.com/images/galleries/ss/SS7.jpg

Fig 2. RIDGERS, D., 1982. New Romantics/The Blitz Kids [Homepage of Derek Ridgers photography], [Online]. Available:  http://www.derekridgers.com/index/module/media/pId/102/id/267/category/gallery%7Cdocumentary%7Cnew_romantics/start/108/Kings-Road;-the-King's-Road;-C.html

Fig 3. RIDGERS, D., 1981. New Romantics [Homepage of Derek Ridgers photography], [Online]. Available:  http://media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com/originals/24/1f/5a/241f5a5b8a62a5bffcc9512615ba309f.jpg  
Fig 4. ANONYMOUS, 1976. Vivienne Westwood [Homepage of CityBlis], [Online photograph]. Available: http://unconventionalism.blogspot.co.uk/
Fig 5. ANONYMOUS, 1980. Adam Ant [Homepage of Blogspot], [Online]. Available:  http://elselectorcovers.blogspot.co.uk/2011/12/1980-beat-my-guest-adam-ants.html


Fig 6. ANONYMOUS, 1980. Adam Ant [Homepage of Blogspot], [Online] Available:  http://elselectorcovers.blogspot.co.uk/2011/12/1980-beat-my-guest-adam-ants.html


Fig 7. ANONYMOUS, 1980. Gothic Flamboyance and the dole leisure class; David Bowie [Homepage of Examiner], [Online]. Available: http://www.examiner.com/article/gothic-flamboyance-the-dole-leisure-class


Fig 9. ANONYMOUS, 1980s. New Romantics/Boy George [Homepage of Media Cache], [Online]. Available: http://media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/67/03/7b/67037b0a1186f6d2e2b8a2cd803ffba1.jpg

Fig 10. ANONYMOUS, 1770. You need more than a feather to look this good [Homepage of Smart Kitchen], [Online etching]. Available: http://www.smartkitchen.com/blog/and-he-called-it-macaroni/

Fig 11. ANONYMOUS, 1980’s. Boy George [Homepage of UKMix], [Online photograph]. Available:: http://www.ukmix.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=82732

Fig 12. ANONYMOUS, 1981. Vivienne Westwood Pirate Line [Homepage of The Blitz Kids], [Online]. Available: http://www.theblitzkids.com/site_archive/seditionaries2/vivipirates10.jpg

Fig 13. ANONYMOUS, 1981-82. Vivienne Westwood Pirate Line [Homepage of  the Victoria and Albert], [Online]. Available: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O75527/pirate-ensemble-westwood-vivienne/

Fig 14. ANONYMOUS, 1981. Vivienne Westwood Pirate Line [Homepage of Media Cache], [Online]. Available: http://media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com/originals/e6/d4/63/e6d463dd6676397d57031174f48def46.jpg


Fig 15. ANONYMOUS, 1981. Vivienne Westwood Pirate Line [Homepage of Invaluable Auctions], [Online]. Available: http://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/a-vivienne-westwood-pirate-collection-ensemble,-120-c-2889a23783

Fig 16. ANONYMOUS, 1981. New Romantics [Homepage of Tumblr], [Online]. Available: http://just80sfashion.tumblr.com/post/3597208899/missdandy-the-new-romantic-look-1981


Fig 17. ANONYMOUS, 1980s. Androgyny; Boy George [Homepage of Tumblr], [Online]. Available:  http://for-redheads.tumblr.com/post/23405279045/boy-george-culture-club

Figure 18. ANONYMOUS, 2009. Rambling and Reflection on ‘70s pop culture [Homepage of Plaid Stallions, Blogspot], [Online]. Available: http://plaidstallions.blogspot.co.uk/2009/05/wild-and-crazy-couple.html


Fig 20. ANONYMOUS, 1980. Androgyny [Homepage of Pinterest], [Online]. Available: http://www.pinterest.com/pin/386535580489499224/
Fig 21. ANONYMOUS, 1980s.  Annie Lennox – Style Icon [Hompage of Waldina], [Online]. Available:  http://waldina.com/2012/02/07/annie-lennox-style-icon/


Fig.22. ANONYMOUS, 1980s. Annie Lennox; Eurythmics [Homepage of Media Cache], [Online]. Available:  http://media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/e7/ce/ee/e7ceeefef178745a05447ef81fd0d48b.jpg


Fig 23. ANONYMOUS, 1980s. The Hounds Tooth [Homepage of Tumblr], [Online]. Available: http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m9sxqfKYb71qzfotso1_1280.jpg



Fig 24. ANONYMOUS, 1770. You need more than a feather to look this good [Homepage of Smart Kitchen], [Online etching]. Available: http://www.smartkitchen.com/blog/and-he-called-it-macaroni/


Fig 25. DAWE, P., 1773. A real character at the laste Masquerade [Homepage of Jeanne De Pompadour], [Online painting]. Available: http://jeannedepompadour.blogspot.in/2012/04/satire-and-fashionable-caricatures.html


Fig 26, 27, 28, 29, 30. GERTS, S., 2010. Macaroni Caricatures [Homepage of Seattle pi], [Online]. Available: http://blog.seattlepi.com/bookpatrol/2010/03/11/the-mother-of-pictorial-satire-or-why-did-yankee-doodle-call-his-hat-macaroni/


Fig 31. ANONYMOUS, n.d., Mans Jacket 1747 [Homepage of Another Bohemian], [Online Photograph]. Available:  http://anotherboheminan.tumblr.com/post/76587003886/p-lanet-e-arth-mans-jacket-1747-beautiful


Fig 32. ANONYMOUS, n.d., Wedding suit of Gustav III, 1766 [Homepage of Fripperies and Fops Blog], [Online]. Available: http://fripperiesandfobs.tumblr.com/post/14334284053/wedding-suit-of-gustav-iii-1766-from-the-royal


Fig 33. MOLINA, J., 2008. Man’s civil uniform coat, 1805-06 [Homepage of The Curated Object], [Online]. Available: http://www.curatedobject.us/the_curated_object_/canada/


Fig 34. ANONYMOUS, 2000. Turquoise Mens Jacket, 1775-89 [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/157308


Fig 35. WINKLEMAN, R., 2011. John Hancock’s Coat [Homepage of Clippix ETC], [Online]. Available: http://etc.usf.edu/clippix/picture/john-hancock-coat.html


Fig. 36: ROMNEY, G., 1777. The Beaumont Family, Detail [Homepage of the Tate], [Online]. Available: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/romney-the-beaumont-family-n03400 [Accessed: 20/03/2015]


Fig. 37, 38. NESS, R., 2013. Caricatures of the Macaronis [Homepage of Browns University Library], [Online]. Available: http://library.brown.edu/dps/curio/tag/caricature/


Fig 39. ANONYMOUS, 2012. Satirical Caricatures: Macaronis [Homepage of Blogspot], [Online]. Available: http://jeannedepompadour.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/satire-and-fashionable-caricatures.html


Fig 40.  DACHE, L., 1968. Silk Coat Detail 1775 [Homepage of the Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/91692?img=8


Fig 41. ANONYMOUS, n.d. Embroidered coat detail [Homepage of Tumblr], [Online]. Available: http://marilena56.tumblr.com/post/63735001483/wasbella102-embroidered-mid-18th-century


Fig 42. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Detailed Silk Coat Embroidery [Homepage of the Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/81537?img=10


Fig 43. ANONYMOUS, n.d. Antique and Vintage Dress [Homepage of Antique Dress], [Online]. Available: http://www.antiquedress.com/item5094.htm


Fig 44. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Detail from silk coat, 1775-80 [Hompegae of the Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/84425?img=5


Fig 45. ANONYMOUS, n.d. 18th Century Textile Design [Homepage of Victoria & Albert], [Online]. Available: http://www.vandaimages.com/results.asp?image=2006AP5998-01&itemw=4&itemf=0005&itemstep=1&itemx=11


Fig.46. OAKES, L., 2014. India chintz waistcoat 1770-90 [Homepage of The Dreamstress], [Online]. Available: http://thedreamstress.com/2014/07/the-hsf-14-favourites-for-challenges-9-12/


Fig 47. ANONYMOUS, 2012. 1760 Waistocat (uncut) [Homepage of Pinterest], [Online]. Available: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/483785184947462105/


Fig. 48. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Silk Waistcoat [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/89561


Fig. 49. THE COLLECTION, n.d. British Silk waistcoat, 1750-1770 [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/157708?rpp=20&pg=2&ao=on&ft=court+dress&deptids=62&when=A.D.+1600-1800&pos=22


Fig 50. THE COLLECTION, n.d. British Silk waistcoat [Hompegae of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/89566?rpp=20&pg=11&rndkey=20140206&ao=on&ft=*&when=A.D.+1600-1800&what=Costume&pos=202

Fig 51. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Silk Vest, 1780-90 [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/157540


Fig 52, 53, 54, 55. ANONYMOUS, 2009. A Shirt’s Tale [Homepage of Wordpress], [Online]. Available: https://pegsandtails.wordpress.com/2009/12/30/a-shirt-tale/


Fig 56. THE COLLECTION, n.d. European silk breeches [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/81612?img=6


Fig. 57. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Red breeches [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search


Fig 58. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Patterned Silk Breeches [Homepage of The Metropolian Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search




Fig 60. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Issey Miyake Trousers [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/79193?rpp=60&pg=1&ft=*&who=Miyake+Design+Studio&img=2


Fig 61. THE COLLECTION, n.d. Richard Torry Trousers, 1984  [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://metmuseum.com/collection/the-collection-online/search/159127?rpp=30&pg=1&ft=1980s+trousers&pos=1


Fig 62. RIDGERS, D., 1980. Photograph of Steve Strange [Homepage of Shapers of the 80s], [Online]. Available: http://shapersofthe80s.com/tag/andy-polaris/


Fig 63, 64. RIDGERS, D., 1980S. Photography of the 80s [Homepage of The Guadian], [Online]. Available: http://www.theguardian.com/music/gallery/2009/oct/04/photography


Fig 65, 66. RIDGERS, D., 1980s. Ibiza, 1980 [Homepage of the Daily Mail], [Online]. Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2518684/Birth-party-paradise-Glamorous-pictures-outrageous-club-culture-1980s-Ibiza.html


Fig 67. WESTWOOD, V., 1981. Pirate Line Wiggle Pattern [Homepage of The Metropolitan Museum of Art], [Online]. Available: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/107373?img=4


Fig 68. LOGAN, Q., 2011. 80s Culture [Homepage of The Guardian], [Online]. Available: http://www.theguardian.com/culture/gallery/2011/nov/13/the-ten-biggest-show-offs


Fig 69. RHODES, Z., n.d. Chifffon dress, 1980s [Homepage of Pinterest], [Online]. Available: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/398990848207354150/


Fig 70. ANONYMOUS, 2012. Vivienne Westwood dress designed 1980 [Homepage of Blogspot], [Online]. Available: http://dirtyfabulous.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/fashion-repeating-episode-1.html

Fig 71. KEE, J., 1980s. Textile Designer [Homepage of Pinterest], [Online]. Available: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/39/7f/75/397f75cd7327e701ca07cad06f568452.jpg

 



 

 

 

 
 
 



















































































                                          






                                               





                                                        








                               





               


            












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